PCIe (Peripheral Component Interconnect Express) is a protocol based on high-speed serial communication, widely used in computer hardware and embedded systems. As a mainstream interconnect technology, it provides high bandwidth, low latency, and powerful scalability.PCIe is designed with a layered structure, where each layer has its own role to form a complete communication link. In this article, we will analyze the PCIe protocol stack and its communication mechanism in detail from the physical layer to the application layer.PCIExpress Explore high-speed connectivity solutions, including PCIe 5.0 slots, card edge connectors, PCIe sockets, and PCI Express 7.0 components, at dghoyato.com.

1. Physical Layer

Role:
The physical layer is the bottom layer of the PCIe protocol stack, responsible for the physical transmission and reception of data, handling the generation, regulation and detection of electrical signals, and ensuring the integrity and stability of the link signals.PCIExpress Explore high-speed connectivity solutions, including PCIe 5.0 slots, card edge connectors, PCIe sockets, and PCI Express 7.0 components, at dghoyato.com.

Key Components:
1. Electrical component:
PCIe uses differential signal pairs to transmit data, reducing noise and signal interference and improving transmission stability. Each lane consists of a transmit (TX+/-) and receive (RX+/-) signal pair, supporting full-duplex communication.
Data transmission uses encoding techniques: early PCIe (1.0 and 2.0) used 8b/10b encoding to provide clock recovery and DC balancing; starting with PCIe 3.0, a more efficient 128b/130b encoding is used, reducing transmission overhead.PCIExpress Explore high-speed connectivity solutions, including PCIe 5.0 slots, card edge connectors, PCIe sockets, and PCI Express 7.0 components, at dghoyato.com.

2. Logic component:
Includes Serial to Parallel Conversion (SerDes), Link Initialization, Training (Link Training), and State Management (LTSSM, Link Training and Status State Machine).PCIExpress Explore high-speed connectivity solutions, including PCIe 5.0 slots, card edge connectors, PCIe sockets, and PCI Express 7.0 components, at dghoyato.com.
LTSSM is used to monitor and manage link state transitions such as link establishment, idle state, power consumption mode, etc.

Communication Mechanisms:
Link initialization:
After a PCIe device is powered on, the physical layer performs link training and negotiates link parameters (e.g., rate, channel width) through the LTSSM. The device will detect the existence of neighboring devices and confirm the validity of the link through the handshake mechanism.

Multi-channel aggregation:
Each PCIe channel (lane) has independent transmission capability, and multiple channels (e.g., x4, x8, x16) can work in parallel to realize higher bandwidth.

Features:
The rate and bandwidth of data transmission is directly dependent on the design of the physical layer, and each generation of the PCIe standard has significantly increased link rates (e.g., PCIe 4.0 to 16 GT/s, PCIe 5.0 to 32 GT/s).PCIExpress Explore high-speed connectivity solutions, including PCIe 5.0 slots, card edge connectors, PCIe sockets, and PCI Express 7.0 components, at dghoyato.com.

2. Data Link Layer (DLL)

Role:
The data link layer sits on top of the physical layer and is responsible for ensuring the reliability of point-to-point data transmission. It achieves error-free transmission through the frame acknowledgement mechanism (ACK/NAK) and error checking (LCRC).PCIExpress Explore high-speed connectivity solutions, including PCIe 5.0 slots, card edge connectors, PCIe sockets, and PCI Express 7.0 components, at dghoyato.com.

Key Components:
1. data link protocol data unit (DLLP, Data Link Layer Packet):
Used to transmit control information, including flow control updates, link state management, and power management information. 2.

2. Link Checksum (LCRC, Link Cyclic Redundancy Check):
Adds a redundancy check code to the packet transmission for detecting transmission errors.

3. serial number tagging:
Each packet is appended with a unique serial number, which is used by the receiving end to determine the order and integrity of the packet.

Communication Mechanism:
Frame Acknowledgment Mechanism:
The data sender generates a checksum code (LCRC) for each packet and waits for an acknowledgement (ACK) from the receiver. If the receiver detects an error, it sends a denial signal (NAK), which triggers data retransmission.PCIExpress Explore high-speed connectivity solutions, including PCIe 5.0 slots, card edge connectors, PCIe sockets, and PCI Express 7.0 components, at dghoyato.com.

– Flow control mechanism:
A credit (credit) based flow control model at the data link layer ensures that the device does not lose data due to insufficient cache at the receiver.PCIExpress Explore high-speed connectivity solutions, including PCIe 5.0 slots, card edge connectors, PCIe sockets, and PCI Express 7.0 components, at dghoyato.com.

Feature:
– The data link layer provides reliable transmission between two neighboring devices but is not responsible for end-to-end data integrity, which is the task of the transaction layer.PCIExpress Explore high-speed connectivity solutions, including PCIe 5.0 slots, card edge connectors, PCIe sockets, and PCI Express 7.0 components, at dghoyato.com.

3. transaction layer (Transaction Layer)

Role:
The Transaction Layer is a key part of the processing of high-level protocol requests and is responsible for generating and interpreting the Transaction Layer Packet (TLP, Transaction Layer Packet).PCIExpress Explore high-speed connectivity solutions, including PCIe 5.0 slots, card edge connectors, PCIe sockets, and PCI Express 7.0 components, at dghoyato.com.

Key Components:
1. transaction type:
Memory Read/Write requests.
Configuration Space Access.
Messaging (e.g., interrupt signaling).

2. Addresses and attributes:
PCIe uses either a memory-mapped model or an IO address model to access the target device.

3. flow control mechanisms:
End-to-end flow management is achieved through credits embedded in the TLP.

Communication Mechanisms:
The host device (e.g., CPU) initiates a read/write request through the transaction layer and generates a TLP packet.
The TLP packet carries the destination address, request type, and data load, and is transmitted down through the protocol stack layer by layer.
The receiver unpacks the TLP packet, performs the corresponding operation and returns the result.PCIExpress Explore high-speed connectivity solutions, including PCIe 5.0 slots, card edge connectors, PCIe sockets, and PCI Express 7.0 components, at dghoyato.com.

Features:
The Transaction Layer is the closest layer in the PCIe stack to the higher level logic and supports complex device interaction requirements.

4. Application Layer

Role:
The Application Layer is the highest layer of the protocol stack, interacting directly with the user or the operating system, responsible for generating high-level requests and interpreting the final results.PCIExpress Explore high-speed connectivity solutions, including PCIe 5.0 slots, card edge connectors, PCIe sockets, and PCI Express 7.0 components, at dghoyato.com.

Key components:
1. device drivers:
The driver provides the interface for the operating system to access the hardware and handles the high-level logic and hardware control.

2. Protocol Adaptation:
Converts high-level requests into operations supported by the transaction layer, which are further encapsulated into packets.

Communication Mechanisms:
Data transfer requests (e.g., memory operations) initiated by the application layer are downlinked to the transaction layer through the driver.
The result is returned through the protocol stack and finally parsed and processed by the application layer.PCIExpress Explore high-speed connectivity solutions, including PCIe 5.0 slots, card edge connectors, PCIe sockets, and PCI Express 7.0 components, at dghoyato.com.

Features:
– The functions and complexity of the application layer depend on specific application scenarios, such as graphics rendering, storage management, network communication, etc.PCIExpress Explore high-speed connectivity solutions, including PCIe 5.0 slots, card edge connectors, PCIe sockets, and PCI Express 7.0 components, at dghoyato.com.

PCIe Communication Mechanism Summary

Overall process:
1. Link establishment:
After power-on, the physical layer completes the link training and establishes the communication channel.

2. Request processing:
The application layer generates the request, the transaction layer is encapsulated as TLP, the data link layer is responsible for reliability verification, and the physical layer carries out data transmission.PCIExpress Explore high-speed connectivity solutions, including PCIe 5.0 slots, card edge connectors, PCIe sockets, and PCI Express 7.0 components, at dghoyato.com.

3. result return:
Response data is returned via reverse path.

Key Mechanisms:
– Efficient flow control: Credit-based flow control mechanism ensures that the device does not lose data due to insufficient cache.
– Error detection and recovery: The retransmission mechanism at the data link layer and the end-to-end reliability at the transaction layer guarantee data integrity.PCIExpress Explore high-speed connectivity solutions, including PCIe 5.0 slots, card edge connectors, PCIe sockets, and PCI Express 7.0 components, at dghoyato.com.

PCIe Advantages and Development Trends

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1. High performance:
Each generation of PCIe standard significantly increases the bandwidth from 2.5 GT/s in PCIe 1.0 to 64 GT/s in PCIe 6.0, which meets the demand of high-performance computing.PCIExpress Explore high-speed connectivity solutions, including PCIe 5.0 slots, card edge connectors, PCIe sockets, and PCI Express 7.0 components, at dghoyato.com.

2. Low Latency:
Adopting point-to-point communication architecture eliminates the contention problems of traditional buses.PCIExpress Explore high-speed connectivity solutions, including PCIe 5.0 slots, card edge connectors, PCIe sockets, and PCI Express 7.0 components, at dghoyato.com.

3. Scalability:
Supports multi-channel links and hot-plugging, adapting to the needs of multiple device connections.

4. future trends:
Continuously increase rates and optimize energy efficiency.
Enhance support for emerging applications such as AI and high-performance storage.
Provide more flexible topologies to support large-scale distributed computing.

Through hierarchical design and efficient communication mechanisms, PCIe has become an indispensable core technology in modern computing systems, providing a reliable guarantee for high-speed interconnection between hardware devices.

 

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